Highlights of Encyclopedia Chapters
Mathematics and Science Curricula in the TIMSS Countries
The chapters written by the TIMSS 2015 countries provide considerable detail about the mathematics and science curricula across the countries at the fourth and eighth grades. There is substantial similarity across curricula, but no two curricula are exactly alike.
Countries’ reports about their mathematics and science curricula at the primary and lower secondary grades show a good correspondence between their curricular goals and the TIMSS 2015 Mathematics and Science Frameworks. As described in the TIMSS 2015 Assessment Frameworks, the updates to the frameworks for 2015 were discussed and reviewed by the TIMSS 2015 National Research Coordinators to ensure that the assessments were responsive to the countries’ concerns. Following the initial discussions, the coordinators consulted with their national experts and responded to a topic-by-topic survey about how best to update the content and cognitive domains for TIMSS 2015.
Mathematics Curricula in the TIMSS 2015 Countries
Most of the countries’ mathematics curricula specified process areas at the fourth and eighth grades as well as content domains. The process areas typically included problem solving and thinking/reasoning skills, as well as other skills such as communication and modeling. About half the countries mentioned developing positive attitudes as part of their curricula.
At the fourth grade, as described in the TIMSS 2015 Mathematics Framework, 50 percent of the assessment covers number topics (i.e., whole numbers–25 percent, fractions and decimals–15 percent, and expressions, simple equations, and relationships–10 percent), 35 percent covers geometric shapes and measures, and 15 percent covers data display. Regarding the number domain, nearly all the countries’ curricula mentioned operations with whole numbers (with and without calculating devices), two-thirds mentioned fractions and/or decimals, more than half mentioned at least one algebra topic such as algebraic expressions, simple equations and number sentences, and/or relationships/patterns. A few countries mentioned percentages and negative numbers. Within geometric shapes and measures, nearly all the countries mentioned two-dimensional shapes and figures and half mentioned three-dimensional shapes and solids. Half mentioned points, lines, lengths, and/or angles as part of geometry or measurement, and similarly nearly half mentioned area, perimeter, and/or volume as part of geometry or measurement. The data content area (often called data, or data handling or processing, but also often called statistics or statistics and probability) is becoming more prevalent at the fourth grade in the TIMSS countries, and was mentioned in three-fourths of the country chapters. Within this area, about half the countries mentioned reading, interpreting, or evaluating tables, bar graphs (with scales), pie charts, and pictographs, and nearly half mentioned making or drawing them. Beyond that, nearly half the countries said students should collect, organize, and analyze data (often relevant to their daily lives). Nearly half mentioned introducing the concept of probability and possibility or frequencies of outcomes. Only about a dozen countries mentioned specific statistics (e.g., average).
At the eighth grade, the TIMSS 2015 Mathematics Framework covers number (30 percent), algebra (30 percent), geometry (20 percent), and data and chance (20 percent). In number, besides operations with whole numbers and fractions and/or decimals (each mentioned by about half the countries), more than half the countries mentioned integers and negative numbers and ratios and percentages, and nearly half mentioned powers and exponents and/or square roots. About one-fourth of the countries included algebra together with number as one content domain, and there was considerable variation in the algebra topics specifically mentioned. However, nearly all countries included algebra expressions and variables, linear equations, and relationships, functions, and sequences, and about one-fourth included inequalities.
In geometry, nearly all countries mentioned geometric shapes and their properties, with about half specifically mentioning the Pythagorean theorem and one-fourth including transformations and symmetry. In the geometry or measurement content areas, about half the curricula included angles and/or lines and quantities (perimeters, area, volumes). Within the data area, more than half mentioned reading, interpreting, and evaluating data displays, half mentioned creating them, and one-third touched on collecting, organizing, and analyzing data. In statistics, about three-fourths of the countries mentioned measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) and about one-fourth included range and spread and distributions, including percentiles and quartiles. In probability, about half mentioned introducing the concept, and about one-fourth mentioned frequencies and cumulative frequencies of events, simple random events, or calculating probabilities. Only a few countries touched on probabilities of compound events.
Science Curricula in the TIMSS 2015 Countries
Most of the science curricula at the fourth and eighth grades emphasized inquiry and investigation as integral to science; many also included a variety of thinking and problem-solving skills. As a more recent development, more than half the countries mentioned technology in some form, including the interaction between science and society or machines and design. About one-third mentioned developing positive attitudes, such as valuing science, protecting the environment, and a sense of curiosity.
At the fourth grade, the TIMSS 2011 Science Framework devotes 45 percent of the assessment to life science, 35 percent to physical science, and 20 percent to Earth science. Most of the countries’ life science curricula included characteristics of living things (humans, plants, and animals), interactions with ecosystems, and human body functions, health, nutrition, and safety. In physical science, most chemistry topics mentioned matter and materials (classification, properties, changes) and most physics topics mentioned energy (forms of energy and how to conserve it). Other physics topics included in about half the curricula were light and sound, electricity and magnetism, and forces and motion. In Earth science, most of the countries mentioned Earth and the solar system, with about half mentioning land and water as well as Earth’s resources and how to conserve and protect them. About one-third of the curricula mentioned changes in the environment (pollution, climate change).
At the eighth grade, the science framework covers biology (35 percent), chemistry (20 percent), physics (25 percent), and Earth science (20 percent). In biology, the majority of the curricula mentioned characteristics of living things, life processes, and human body systems, and about half covered human health, reproduction, and heredity and genetics. Topics included in about one-third of the curricula were cells, ecosystems, diversity, and adaptation. Chemistry focused on classifying matter, exploring its particular structure, chemical changes, and using the periodic table. In physics, almost all the chapters mentioned energy (and usually also heat), as well as electricity and magnetism, and forces and motion. Half mentioned light and/or sound. The Earth science or geography curricula (depending on the country) included each of the following topics in about half the countries: Earth’s structure and physical features, including water and air; processes and cycles, including weather and climate; the solar system, expanding to space exploration in some cases; and/or conservation, as well as human impact on the environment and the problems and hazards that creates, such as pollution and global warming.
Increased Emphasis on Teacher Quality
As discussed in the highlights of the Curriculum Questionnaire results, many countries have increased the requirements for becoming a teacher. The chapters make it clear that countries also are paying more attention to teaching as a profession, and expending more resources on continuing professional development. Many countries are working to help teachers be successful in their classrooms, and increasing their efforts to better prepare school leadership.
In one example of a country working to bring heightened professionalism to the career of teaching, Australia established an institute in 2010 to provide national leadership in promoting excellence in teaching and school leadership. Among other initiatives, the institute developed the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (implemented in 2011), covering three domains—Professional Knowledge, Professional Practice, and Professional Engagement—over four career stages—Graduate, Proficient, Highly Accomplished, and Lead.
In Belgium (Flemish), a government decree brought important changes in teacher training under one coherent framework. Teacher profiles enumerate competencies in terms of knowledge, skills, and attitudes, and continuing education courses allow teachers to acquire the necessary qualifications for particular aspects of the profiles. All trainee teachers in England must meet the Teachers’ Standards set by the Secretary of State and pass a statutory 12 month induction program to attain Qualified Teacher Status. In Finland, the National Board of Education provides in-service teacher training and promotes teacher professional development. In 2014, the Ministry of Education and Culture funded a new development program through the National Board of Education to train 50,000 teachers in a two year period.
Hong Kong SAR has the Committee on Professional Development of Teachers and Principals to advise the government’s Education Bureau on policies and measures related to the professional development of teachers and principals at different career stages. In 2015, the Education Bureau announced the provision of 810 professional development programs to address the needs of approximately 60,000 principals and teachers. To maintain compliance with the Practicing Teacher Criteria published by New Zealand’s education council, teachers in New Zealand must show satisfactory professional development when renewing their teaching certificates every three years. In Northern Ireland, the performance of all teachers is reviewed annually in accordance with the Performance Review and Staff Development Scheme, which identifies development needs and ensures that the corresponding professional development opportunities are made available.
Use of Technology
With each TIMSS assessment, more and more technology makes its way into curriculum and instruction in the participating countries. As revealed by the responses to the TIMSS 2015 Curriculum Questionnaire, practically every country has plans for integrating ICT into teaching and learning across the curriculum, and many countries are implementing substantial amounts of ICT into classrooms.
For example, in the Czech Republic, schools are directed to have specific spaces dedicated to ICT instruction, and ICT is a compulsory part of basic education at the primary and lower secondary levels. Students learn to use computational technology tools (calculators, computer software, and other aids) in the context of mathematics applications. From 2011 to 2015, Denmark allocated a budget of 500 million DKK for the increase of information technology use in schools, and the initiative has been extended through the end of 2017. Teachers are required to integrate computer technology with instruction, and to use digital pedagogical and didactic tools to benefit students (e.g., differentiated instruction). In Israel, a national program initiated in 2011, Adapting the Educational System to the 21st Century, aims to create learning environments in which technology serves the development of innovative pedagogy and 21st century skills. In conjunction with those teacher training workshops on creating computer-based learning environments, the Bring Your Own Device program was initiated in 2015 to support the implementation of a variety of technological devices in classroom activities. The ongoing Singapore Masterplan for Information and Communications Technology (ICT) in Education introduced its fourth Masterplan in 2015, building on the foundation of the first three. Incorporating insights from extensive reviews and stakeholder consultations, it seeks to optimize the use of ICT in learning and supporting the total curriculum.
STEM Initiatives in the TIMSS 2015 Countries
Poland describes its Science Picnic as Europe’s largest outdoor event aimed to promote science through “easy to understand” experiments, demonstrations, and interactive exhibits. The 19th picnic was held in 2015 in the National Stadium, attracting more than 100,000 visitors. More typically, the rest of the TIMSS 2015 countries have begun more recently to develop a variety of special initiatives to increase student interest and participation in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics subjects, collectively known as STEM. For example, two of Australia’s initiatives are the National STEM School Education Strategy 2016–2026, which aims to give students a solid foundation and inspire them to study STEM subjects, and the National Innovation and Science Agenda, to help students embrace the digital age and develop the STEM skills they need for tomorrow’s jobs.
As other examples, in Belgium (Flemish) the government developed its STEM Action Plan in 2012, to motivate more students to study and choose careers in STEM, and LUMA Centre Finland was established in 2013 to inspire and motivate youth in STEM education through the latest science and technology activities. Israel’s Science and Technology Future Professionals was begun in 2011 to attract students at the lower secondary level to advanced STEM studies beginning in the seventh grade. Singapore has the Agency for Science, Technology, and Research (A*STAR), Thailand has the Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology (IPST), and the United States established the Committee on Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics Education (CoSTEM).